• This was fought between FRELIMO who were government troops and RENAMO
who were the rebels soon after independence in 1975.
• RENAMO was formed by the former FRELIMO platoon commander, Andre
Matsangaissa.
• Under him, the white minority government of Rhodesia began to train RENAMO
soldiers to fight against FRELIMO.
• This movement was mainly supported by the Ndau people to whom
Matsangaissa belonged.
• In October 1979, he was killed by government forces thereby bringing RENAMO
to a verge of collapse due to internal squabbles.
• Later on, Affonso Dhlakama became leader of RENAMO in 1980 after ousting
his rival Lucas Mhlanga.
• After the fall of the white minority government in Zimbabwe, South Africa took
over support of the rebel group. This marked a turning point as the war intensified.
• RENAMO was regularly supplied with arms to the extent that at one time it was
better equipped than FRELIMO.
• Its main target were regional transport zones e.g. water ways along the Zambezi,
railways connecting Mozambique and other countries, FRELIMO- controlled zones.
• In the early 1980s, the group had a reputation of savagery as it was well known
for mutilating civilians.
• In 1988, government forces scored an important point by killing Calisto Megue
who was a famed magician for RENAMO in Zambezia.
• Later on, both parties started planning for negotiations. The first round of
negotiations was held in Rome in July 1988. This was after RENAMO had started
losing ground due to end of apartheid in South Africa which led to cut-off of aid to the
rebel group.
• By 1990, a new constitution for Mozambique came into effect and the country
became the Republic of Mozambique.
Tribalism: There was a struggle between the North and the Eastern parts. Balewa came from the powerful Muslim north where the Hausa and the Fulani tribes were most dominant.
The Ibos of
the East were often mistreated despite Azikiwe being from there.
The 1964 economic recession: By 1964, prices of commodities had risen drastically,
unemployment was high and wages to those who were employed were very low.
Religious rivalry: There was often tension and mistrust as the northerners were basically Muslims while Christians dominated the East.
• Many people were killed when soldiers began to rule as the tension between the
northerners and the eastern occupants intensified.
• Tribalism was increased.
• When General Gowon became ruler in 1967, things worsened between the Ibos
and the Hausas. The Ibos installed their own ruler, Colonel Ufukwu who declared
that the Eastern region had seceded (withdrawn) from Nigeria to become an
independent state of Biafra.
• Fluctuation of the falling copper prices at world market: Due to heavy reliance on
copper, it meant that whatever happens at the world market would have an adverse
effect on Zambia's economy. For instance, 1975 saw a drastic fall in copper prices at the
international market.
• Poor quality copper-ore: Other producers like Chile, USA and Argentina produced
better quality copper ore.
• Increased debts: The Kaunda government embarked on both commercial and public
borrowing in an attempt to restructure the economy. The loans from IMF and World Bank
just worsened the situation.
• Overdependence on imports: The rapid expansion of non-technical education drained
people away from the rural areas. This made Zambia to import even food as there was
no one in the rural areas to produce it.
• Geographical position: Being landlocked, it meant that it had to rely on ports of its
neighbours. Due to support that it gave to freedom fighters in Zimbabwe, South Africa,
Angola and Mozambique, the minority governments in those countries interrupted
Zambia's trade routes in retaliation.
• Global inflation due to oil crisis: This affected many countries but Zambia was badly
hit because its economy was already weak.
• Impact of Structural Adjustment Programme (SAP): The Chiluba government decided
to follow each and every prescription of IMF and World Bank e.g. privatization and
liberalization which worsened the economy.
• Impact of corruption: In Zambia, it was said to be widespread among politicians and
the civil service.
Destabilsation policy of South Africa: South Africa was deliberately delaying goods entering into the country since many countries were relying on South African ports and harbours.
• There was no country assigned to coordinate trade in SADC.
• Member states differed in implementation of sanctions against South Africa e.g.
Malawi continued to rely on South Africa.
• Industrial strategy depending on individual country's initiatives e.g. a country had to
try its own effort to acquire a loan.
• Other countries have benefited more from SADC that others e.g. Botswana, Malawi.
Among its achievements is that it has helped to solve political problems in other countries
e.g Mozambique.
• Its aim is to boost the economies of countries in Eastern and Southern Africa
through cooperation.
• This is done by creating a conducive environment for trade e.g. by solving
political problems
• Trade has increased due to interdependence of nations.
• It has minimized political problems through talks and preventing nations from
supporting rebel groups.
• It has failed to solve the crises in Burundi, Congo and Uganda.
• There is slow trade growth due to too much protectionism in trade.