• Geographically, it is the largest country covering 1/10 of the world.
• It was an agrarian (more dependent on agriculture) and people often lived in
poverty.
• It was an autocracy ruled by Czar Nicholas II who was ruthless and inefficient.
• It was a divided society with the highest class comprising industrialists, factory
owners, politicians and government officials.
• The middle class mainly comprised kulaks (rich farmers) and below were the
peasants and factory workers.
• Because of poor living standards and political instability, there were often riots in
Russia.
Criticism to the Czar government reached its climax in 1905 with the Russian defeat
in the Russo-Japanese war (1904-05) which forced the Czar to make a concession
(October manifesto) which included granting of a duma (parliament).
It was undemocratically elected and votes were rigged. Czar's troops dispersed the duma after 10 weeks.
Peasants and urban workers were denied to vote.
Had no powers because the Czar controlled the ministers and the secret police.
• Began as a result of food riots which started in Petrograd. Food riots were not
new in Russia so the officials took little notice of it. However, these riots spread all
over the city.
• By the time the riots were happening, the Czar was at his army headquarters at
Mogilov and decided to send his troops to suppress the riots. Instead of stopping the
riots, the troops joined the strikers.
• The Czar decided to go back to his Winter Palace from Mogilov but the soldiers
caught him and forced him to abdicate (leave office).
• He accepted and requested his young brother, Grand Duke Michael to succeed
him but Michael refused. This marked the end of the monarchy and the institution of
a Provisional Government.
It was first headed by Prince George Lvov who was later replaced by Alexander Kerensky. It promised that:
o The constituent assembly would meet soon.
o Russia would pull out of the First World War which was draining most of its
resources.
0 Russian problems e.g. food and land would be solved soon.
However, its efforts were disturbed by a group known as Petrograd Soviets which issued order number 1 that people should obey them and not the Provisional government.
• He constituent assembly did not meet as promised.
• When the March 1917 was taking place, one of the fierce opposers of the Czar,
the Bolshevik leader, Vladmir Lenin was in Switzerland where the Czar government
had exiled him.
• On 16 April, he arrived at Finland Station in Petrograd where he demanded the
following: power to be taken from the provisional government and given to the
Soviets and within that, to the Bolsheviks.
• Capitalism to be overthrown and instead, a communist state to be set up.
Provision of bread, peace and land (ending food problems, pulling Russia out of the
war and distribution of land to peasants).
• On 20 October 1917, he tried to seize power but the plot was uncovered. He
then went into hiding in Finland. His friend, Leon Trotsky and other Bolshevik
leaders were arrested and the Bolshevik newspaper, the Pravda was banned.
• In November, Lenin persuaded the Central Committee of the Bolsheviks that he
was ready for another overthrow.
• On 7 November 1917, key buildings were seized and Provisional government
ministers except Kerensky who escaped were arrested. The Winter palace was
besieged.
• On 8* November 1917, a Communist government was set up.
Once he gained power, Lenin introduced two policies:
Under this policy:
• All land was nationalized (to be under state control) so that it should be
redistributed to the peasants.
• All banks and industries were nationalized.
• A secret police (cheka) was formed.
• Agricultural production decreased.
• Many banks and industries were closed.
• Unemployment rose.
• Outbreaks of violence increased e.g. in 1921, there was an open rebellion at the
Russian port of Kronstadt. This became a warning that the policy was unpopular
hence there was need for change.
Under this:
o Peasants were allowed to keep some grain.
o Peasants were allowed some private trade.
o Major banks and industries were nationalized but individuals retained the smaller
ones. This boosted the economy of Russia.
Due to unpopularity of the first policy, there was civil war between the Reds (Bolsheviks) and the Whites (Mensheviks) for the following reasons:
• Ex-Czar officials were angered by the loss of their wealth and power.
• Most people who had assisted the Bolsheviks in the November 1917 revolution
were worried with the way things had turned up after the revolution.
• Institution of the cheka made no difference with Czar's rule.
• They were well organized by brilliant leaders e.g Trotsky.
• They took control of the main cities e.g. Petrograd and Moscow.
• The whites were not centrally organized.
• The Reds outnumbered the whites.
• The whites got half-hearted support from the western countries.
In 1922, Lenin had a heart attack. Two other attacks followed later. On 21 January 1924, he died.
• Trotsky was a man of tremendous intellectual power. As such the other politburo
members tried all they could to isolate. Instead, they had their trust in Stalin who
looked calm.
• The other Politburo members underestimated Stalin. In 1922, Lenin cautioned
the other members about Stalin but they ignored it.
• Stalin used his position as Secretary General to have majority support in the
party. Those who opposed him were expelled e.g Trotsky was expelled as
Commissar of war in 1925 and the following year, Trotsky and Kamenev were
expelled from the politburo and zinoviev was dismissed from the leadership of
Communist International. In 1927, Trotsky was expelled from the party. After 1929,
he lived in exile in Mexico where he was assassinated in 1940.
• Stalin used differences over policies o how to run Russia to his advantage.
Trotsky advocated for socialism throughout the world but Stalin preferred socialism in
one country (Russia) after which it would spread to other parts of the world.
Stalin once said "we are fifty or a hundred years behind the advanced countries. We must make good of this lag in ten years. Either we do it or they crush us" In view of this concern, Stalin embarked on measures to improve the economy of Russia.
This was a system whereby Stalin joined together 25 million peasant plots into large state-owned farms. He saw the following advantages in the system.
• The farms would be efficient and would produce more.
• Grain collection would be easier.
• Due to use of machines, little labour would be required and extra labour would go
to towns to work in industries.
• Russia would export more and get foreign goods for industrialization.
* These were aimed at improving the industrial output of Russia.
Stalin set up targets which people had to meet within a specified five year spans.
It concentrated on heavy machinery like coal, oil steel and production of hydro-electric power.
It concentrated on heavy machinery and had the support of western countries.
It concentrated on consumer goods at first but changed to arms' production as the second world war was looming.
• Russia changed from being an agrarian to an industrialist.
• People's health was affected as they were forced to work for long hours to meet the
targets.
• Goods were of low quality as main emphasis was on quantity.
• Other sectors suffered as there were specific areas of concentration.
• Many people moved to towns which led to overpopulation hence unhygienic
conditions.
Stalin wanted Russia to be free from any eminent attacks fro western countries.
• He therefore improved relations with them by doing the following:
• In 1934, Russia joined the League of Nations.
• In 1935, Russia signed the Pact of Mutual Assistance with France.
• She also improved relations with Czechoslovakia.
• In 1939, Russia signed the Nazi-Soviet Pact with Germany. This was to avoid a
future German attack on Russia. The two countries also secretly agreed to divide Poland
between themselves.
• When World War II was coming to an end, Stalin started pushing Germany back and
installed satellite communist governments in several countries.
• Russia also participated at the conferences of Yalta, Portsdam, Moscow, Dumbarton
Oaks and San Francisco which decided on World war II settlement and formation of the
United Nations Organisation.
1. (1919-1923): A period of economic instability due to: - payment of reparations. Occupation of the Ruhr valley by Belgian and French troops.
2. (1923-1929): A period of prosperity because:
3. (1929-1933): Another period of economic instability due to:
• The economic depression which forced America to stop paying loans to other
countries including Germany.
• The coming torn power of Adolf Hitler and his Nazi party who carried out
campaigns against the government.
It began with a umber of disadvantages e.g.
Outbreaks of violence which the government seemed incapable of preventing e.g.
• In 1919, Germany was close to bankruptcy.
• Her attempt to pay the reparations worsened the situation.
• French troops occupation of the Ruhr valley in 1923 paralysed the Germany
industry e.g. the working class were badly hit, wages failed to keep pace with inflation
and people lost their savings.
• Reliance on American loans meant that if America would be in financial
difficulties, the Germany economy would shake. Worse still, following the Wall Street
crash of 1929, USA stopped giving loans.
• They promised national unity, prosperity and full employment.
• They promised to overthrow the Versailles Treaty and build Germany into a
Great power again.
• The Nazi private army, Storm troopers (SA) was attractive to young people
because it gave them a uniform and a small wage.
• Wealthy land owners and industrialists encouraged the Nazis because they
feared a communist revolution.
• Hitler'himself had extra-ordinary political abilities e.g. public speaking. His views
were written in his book, "Mein kampf' (My struggle) which he wrote while in prison.
• The Nazi promised a strong, decisive government and restoration of national
pride.
However, a small clique of right wing politicians decided to bring Hitler into a coalition
government. The main conspirators were Franz von Papen and Kurt von
Schliecher. They did this because:
• He had a second private army, shultzstaffel (S.S) which in conjunction with the
S.A disturbed meetings of other political parties.
• Hitler was referred to as Fuhrer (leader).
• This deprived the Jews of their rights as German citizens.
• During World War II, he carried out mass murder of the Jews which he called
'final solution to the Jew's problem.'
Stated that government could introduce laws for the next four years without the approval of the Reichstag (German parliament).
• In 1934, Hinderburg died and Hitler became both president and commander-in-
chief of the armed forces.
• On 30 June 1930, Ernest Rohm, leader of the S.A wanted his troops to be
merged with the reichswer and that he should be made General.
• On the same day, Hitler ordered the murder of Rohm along with more than 150
people in what was called 'Night of Long knives.'
• His main aim was that Germany needed lebensraum (living space).
• He therefore tried to annul those parts of the Versailles Treaty which he disliked.
• He also wanted to restore Germany to her former position of military power.
• In July 1934, the Nazi made a coup attempt in Vienna, Austria. However, this did not lead to an anschluss (union) because:
Austria never supported it.
Mussolini of Italy denounced it by supporting Austria because by this time, Mussolini saw Germany as Italy's enemy and never liked to see her growing on its borders.
-In 1935, Hitler made another coup attempt. This time Austria had become isolated because:
Italy had signed the Rome-Berlin Axis with Germany.
Countries which could support Austria e.g. Romania had linked with Germany.
France could not support Austria because she was fully occupied following the Appeasement policy.
In 1938, Hitler held discussions with the Australian chancellor, Kurt Schuschnigg in which he demanded that the leader of the Austria Nazis, Arthur Seyys Inquart should become Internal Minister.
Schuschnigg refused because he suspected that Hitler was aiming at the anschluss with bullying techniques.
Schuschnigg then announced a plebiscite (referendum) to find out whether the people wanted the anschluss or not.
• Hitler was afraid of the results so he threatened that he would invade Austria if the referendum was not cancelled.
Schuschnigg was afraid so he cancelled the referendum.
Hitler then went further by demanding that Schuschnigg should be replaced by Seyys Inquart as chancellor.
• When the Austrian president refused, Hitler commanded his troops to invade Austria on 12 March 1938.
After Hitler had achieved his aim in Czechoslovakia, he turned to Poland where he made two demands:
• The city of Danzig to go to Germany.
• Germany to control all roads and railway communication across Poland.
Negotiations between Germany and Poland failed. As a result, on 1 September
1939, Germany attacked Poland. As a result:
• Britain and France declared war on Germany.
• On 3 September 1939, the Second World War began.